Cover Image

Development of impurity-tolerant electrocatalysts for durable proton exchange membrane fuel cells: A review

Darya Grineva, Ruslan Mensharapov, Matvey Sinyakov, Dmitry Spasov

Abstract


Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are a promising technology for electric transport; however, their anode and cathode electrocatalysts are susceptible to poisoning by airborne impurities (CO, NOx, SO2, H2S) in urban environments. In this review, modification strategies aimed at enhancing poison tolerance while preserving the electrochemically active surface area and activity are organized according to the dominant protective mechanism, namely: electronic modulation of Pt via heteroatom incorporation, alloying, or strong metal-support interaction (SMSI) effects; bifunctional and cocatalytic pathways enabled by transition metal oxides; geometric and physical blocking through core-shell architectures and barrier layers; and synergistic multicomponent systems that integrate several of these mechanisms. The SMSI effect is demonstrated to be pivotal in weakening the bond between Pt active sites and impurity intermediates. Multicomponent systems combining an oxophilic component with an electrically conductive additive have been shown to provide the optimal balance between stability, activity, and the conversion rate of catalytic poisons at typical PEMFC operating temperatures.

Keywords


PEMFC; electrocatalyst degradation; CO tolerance; strong metal-support interaction; multicomponent architectures; oxygen reduction reaction

Full Text:

PDF

References


Song Z, Li J, Zhang Q, Li Y, Ren X, Zhang L, et al. Progress and perspective of single‐atom catalysts for membrane electrode assembly of fuel cells. Carbon Energy 2023;5:e342. doi:10.1002/cey2.342

Ivanov BV, Mensharapov RM, Ivanova NA, Spasov DD, Sinyakov MV, Grigoriev SA, et al. Experimental study of the electrochemical hydrogen pump based on proton exchange membrane for the application in fusion fuel cycle. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 2023;180:744–51. doi:10.1016/j.psep.2023.10.043

Mensharapov RM, Spasov DD, Sinyakov MV, Grineva DE, Nagorny SV, Chumakov RG, et al. Carbon-Supported Pt-SiO2 Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Low-Temperature Range: Rotating Disk Electrode Study. Hydrogen 2025;6:5. doi:10.3390/hydrogen6010005

Agyekum EB, Ampah JD, Wilberforce T, Afrane S, Nutakor C. Research progress, trends, and current state of development on PEMFC-new insights from a bibliometric analysis and characteristics of two decades of research output. Membranes 2022;12:1103. doi:10.3390/membranes12111103

Amirkhalili SA, Zahedi A, Ghaffarinezhad A, Kanani B. Design and evaluation of a hybrid wind/hydrogen/fuel cell energy system for sustainable off-grid power supply. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2025;100:1456–82. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.259

Tian W, Zhang X, Zhou P, Guo R. Review of energy management technologies for unmanned aerial vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cell. Energy 2025;323:135751. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2025.135751

Navinkumar TM, Bharatiraja C. Sustainable hydrogen energy fuel cell electric vehicles: A critical review of system components and innovative development recommendations. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2025;215:115601. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2025.115601

Abu SM, Hannan MA, Rahman SA, Long CY, Ker PJ, Wong RT, et al. An effective optimization algorithm for hydrogen fuel cell-based hybrid energy system: A sustainable microgrid approach. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2025;98:1341–55. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.176

Alfaifi SM, Balu R, Chiang K, Choudhury NR, Dutta NK. Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: Significant Advances, Major Challenges, and Future Directions. ACS Catal 2025;15:9301–45. doi:10.1021/acscatal.5c00903

Corigliano O, Pagnotta L, Fragiacomo P. On the technology of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) energy systems for stationary power generation: A review. Sustainability 2022;14:15276. doi:10.3390/su142215276

Mehran MT, Khan MZ, Song R-H, Lim T-H, Naqvi M, Raza R, et al. A comprehensive review on durability improvement of solid oxide fuel cells for commercial stationary power generation systems. Applied Energy 2023;352:121864. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121864

Le D-D, Nguyen H-L, Yu S, Le HH, Hoang T-D. Progress and outlook of solid oxide fuel cell technology for stationary power generation applications. Frontiers in Energy Research 2025;13:1650696. doi:10.3389/fenrg.2025.1650696

Park D, Ham S, Sohn Y-J, Choi Y-Y, Kim M. Mass transfer characteristics according to flow field and gas diffusion layer of a PEMFC metallic bipolar plate for stationary applications. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2023;48:304–17. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.09.261

Spasov DD, Ivanova NA, Mensharapov RM, Zasypkina AA, Seregina EA, Grigoriev SA, et al. Nanostructured Pt20/SiO2x/С Electrocatalysts for Water-Balance Stabilization in a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. Nanotechnol Russia 2022;17:320–7. doi:10.1134/S2635167622030181

Qasem NAA, Abdulrahman GAQ. A Recent Comprehensive Review of Fuel Cells: History, Types, and Applications. International Journal of Energy Research 2024;2024:7271748. doi:10.1155/2024/7271748

Grineva DE, Mensharapov RM, Ivanova NA, Spasov DD, Sinyakov MV, Aliyev ASh, et al. Hydrogen-supported decarbonization of automotive industry: from ICE through hybrids to FC vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2025;192:152238. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.152238

Kocha SS, Pollet BG. Advances in rapid and effective break-in/conditioning/recovery of automotive PEMFC stacks. Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 2022;31:100843. doi:10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100843

Qasem NA. A recent overview of proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Fundamentals, applications, and advances. Applied Thermal Engineering 2024;252:123746. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2024.123746

Paladin G, Manzardo A, Nale A, Negro E, Di Noto V. A comparative life cycle assessment of Pt nanoalloy/carbon nitride/graphene electrocatalysts for PEMFC stacks. Chemical Engineering Journal 2025;505:159251. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2025.159251

Jithul KP, Tamilarasi B, Pandey J. Electrocatalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR): towards an active and stable electrocatalyst for low-temperature PEM fuel cell. Ionics 2024;30:6757–87. doi:10.1007/s11581-024-05767-z

Paperzh K, Bayan Y, Gerasimov E, Pankov I, Konstantinov A, Menshchikov V, et al. High-performance electrocatalyst for PEMFC cathode: Combination of ultra-small platinum nanoparticles and N-doped carbon support. Carbon Trends 2024;16:100383. doi:10.1016/j.cartre.2024.100383

Kumar S, Yoyakki A, Pandikassala A, Soni R, Kurungot S. Pt‐Anchored‐Zirconium Phosphate Nanoplates as High‐Durable Carbon‐Free Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalyst for PEM Fuel Cell Applications. Advanced Sustainable Systems 2023;7:2200330. doi:10.1002/adsu.202200330

Polagani RK, Suryawanshi PL, Chinthala M, Annamareddy SHK, Nasani N, Sonawane SH. Effect of Ni loading onto Pt (Pt‐Ni/C) electrocatalysts for PEM fuel cell: A study of ORR activity, stability, and temperature effect. Asia-Pacific J Chem Eng 2024;19:e2993. doi:10.1002/apj.2993

Goyal P, Ghosh A. Applications of Graphene-based electrocatalysts for PEMFCs. Materials Today: Proceedings 2023;76:153–9. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2022.10.293

Spasov DD, Ivanova NA, Pushkarev AS, Pushkareva IV, Presnyakova NN, Chumakov RG, et al. On the influence of composition and structure of carbon-supported Pt-SnO2 hetero-clusters onto their electrocatalytic activity and durability in PEMFC. Catalysts 2019;9:803. doi:10.3390/catal9100803

Ivanova NA, Spasov DD, Grigoriev SA, Kamyshinsky RA, Peters GS, Mensharapov RM, et al. On the influence of methanol addition on the performances of PEM fuel cells operated at subzero temperatures. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2021;46:18116–27. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.09.195

Jing X, Lan H, Liu C, Ding R, Yin X. Performance evaluation of boron-doped carbon-supported platinum catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2025;658:238227. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.238227

Wong WY, Rani MAAA, Loh KS, Lim KL, Minggu LJ. Current progress on rational design of porous MOF-derived transition metal–nitrogen–carbon as oxygen reduction reaction catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2025;52:101001. doi:10.1016/j.cogsc.2025.101001

Garcés‐Barría C, Cáceres‐Díaz D, Torres‐Fernández J, Bustamante TM, Elgueta E, Sanhueza F. Cathode Materials for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: From Metal and Metal Composite Catalysts to Carbon‐Supported Hybrids in Oxygen Reduction Reaction. ChemElectroChem 2025;12:e202500146. doi:10.1002/celc.202500146

Lee SH, Lee SM, Park S, Lee Y-S, Jung D-H. Effect of oxygen reduction electrode for low-temperature fuel cells on durability using SiOx-doped and heat-treated platelet carbon nanofibers catalyst support. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 2025;148:522–31. doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2025.01.005

Li J, Lin C, Chen Z, Huang J, Yang B, Lin M, et al. Fe–N–C Electrocatalyst with d-π Interaction Induced by Submicropore Vacancies for Durable Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. ACS Catal 2025;15:20512–30. doi:10.1021/acscatal.5c06689

Ali ABM, Ahmed TA, Saydaxmetova S, Kanjariya P, Rajiv A, Singh A, et al. Study the effect of functional groups on the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) of graphyne as a promising electrocatalyst in protons exchange membrane fuel cell. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 2026;208:113051. doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2025.113051

Wang F, Li Y, Dou Y, Zhu H. Study on the oxygen reduction reaction performance of high Pt load catalyst supported on carbon black modified by conductive polymer polyethylene dioxythiophene in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2025;645:237201. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.237201

Dushina A, Schmies H, Schonvogel D, Dyck A, Wagner P. The influence of hydrogen sulphide contamination on platinum catalyst used in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells during potential cycling at 0.05–1.05 V vs RHE: An RRDE study. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2020;45:35073–84. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.05.038

Mensharapov RM, Ivanova NA, Spasov DD, Bakirov AV, Fateev VN. PEMFC performance at nonstandard operating conditions: A review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2024;96:664–79. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.11.395

Fan L, Zhao J, Luo X, Tu Z. Comparison of the performance and degradation mechanism of PEMFC with Pt/C and Pt black catalyst. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2022;47:5418–28. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.135

Xu Y-H, Fang W-Z, An K-B, Xuan Z-H, Hu D-K, Zhu Y, et al. Rapid predictions of platinum degradation in cathode catalyst layers based on Ostwald ripening theory and numerical insights. Chemical Engineering Journal 2026:172952. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2026.172952

Schneider P, Batool M, Godoy AO, Singh R, Gerteisen D, Jankovic J, et al. Impact of platinum loading and layer thickness on cathode catalyst degradation in PEM fuel cells. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 2023;170:024506. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/acb8df

Liu W, Chen Q, Zhang F, Xu D, Li X. Atomic metal, N, S co-doped 3D porous nano-carbons: Highly efficient catalysts for HT-PEMFC. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2021;46:13180–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.01.056

Grineva DE, Zasypkina AA, Mensharapov RM, Spasov DD, Panchenko NV, Patsaev TD, et al. Electrochemical Evaluation of Degradation Stability in Nanostructured Electrocatalysts Based on SiO2-modified Carbon Supports for PEM Fuel Cell Cathodes. Nanotechnol Russia 2025;20:231–8. doi:10.1134/S2635167624602067

Kumar A, Park EJ, Kim YS, Spendelow JS. Surface Functionalization of Carbon Black for PEM Fuel Cell Electrodes. Macro Chemistry & Physics 2024;225:2400092. doi:10.1002/macp.202400092

Polagani RK, Chinthala M, Sonawane SH. The effect of Cr alloying with Pt/C as an electrocatalyst for low temperature PEM fuel cell. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects 2022;44:3239–52. doi:10.1080/15567036.2022.2062493

Ekinci A, Büyükkanber K, Akdag A, Şahin Ö. Improved catalytic activity in PdCo nanocatalysts synthesized via ultrasonic spray method for PEMFC applications. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2024;92:810–20. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.10.293

Molochas C, Tsiakaras P. Carbon monoxide tolerant Pt-based electrocatalysts for H2-PEMFC applications: current progress and challenges. Catalysts 2021;11:1127. doi:10.3390/catal11091127

Chen Z, Shu C, Gan Z, Cao J, Qiu P, Sun X, et al. Research Progress and Perspectives on Anti‐Poisoning Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Fuel Cells. Small 2025;21:2411049. doi:10.1002/smll.202411049

Cai B, Chen X, Wang L, Fu H. Advanced Progress for Promoting Anodic Hydrogen Oxidation Activity and Anti-CO Poisoning in Fuel Cells. ACS Catal 2024;14:13602–29. doi:10.1021/acscatal.4c03588

Chen W, Cao J, Fu W, Zhang J, Qian G, Yang J, et al. Molecular‐Level Insights into the Notorious CO Poisoning of Platinum Catalyst. Angew Chem Int Ed 2022;61:e202200190. doi:10.1002/anie.202200190

Ficca VCA, Santoro C, Placidi E, Arciprete F, Serov A, Atanassov P, et al. Exchange Current Density as an Effective Descriptor of Poisoning of Active Sites in Platinum Group Metal-free Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction. ACS Catal 2023;13:2162–75. doi:10.1021/acscatal.2c05222

Farooque M, Fahidy TZ. Low Potential Oxidation of Hydrogen Sulfide on a Rotating Tripolar Wiper-Blade Electrode via Continuous Anode Reactivation. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1977;124:1191–5. doi:10.1149/1.2133526

Garsany Y, Baturina OA, Swider-Lyons KE. Impact of sulfur dioxide on the oxygen reduction reaction at Pt/Vulcan carbon electrocatalysts. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2007;154:B670–5

Urdampilleta I, Uribe F, Rockward T, Brosha EL, Pivovar B, Garzon FH. PEMFC poisoning with H2S: dependence on operating conditions. Electrochemical Society Transactions 212 2007;11:831–42. doi:10.1149/1.2780996

Kakati BK, Kucernak AR. Gas phase recovery of hydrogen sulfide contaminated polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2014;252:317–26. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.11.077

Pinzón M, García-Carpintero R, De La Osa AR, Romero A, Abad-Correa D, Sánchez P. Ammonia as a hydrogen carrier: An energy approach. Energy Conversion and Management 2024;321:118998. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118998

Zhai L, Liu S, Xiang Z. Ammonia as a carbon-free hydrogen carrier for fuel cells: a perspective. Industrial Chemistry & Materials 2023;1:332–42. doi:10.1039/D3IM00036B

Li Y, Li X, Pillai HS, Lattimer J, Mohd Adli N, Karakalos S, et al. Ternary PtIrNi Catalysts for Efficient Electrochemical Ammonia Oxidation. ACS Catal 2020;10:3945–57. doi:10.1021/acscatal.9b04670

Wang H, Dekel DR, Abruña HD. Unraveling the Mechanism of Ammonia Electrooxidation by Coupled Differential Electrochemical Mass Spectrometry and Surface-Enhanced Infrared Absorption Spectroscopic Studies. J Am Chem Soc 2024;146:15926–40. doi:10.1021/jacs.4c02621

Hu K, Yang D. Studies on the effects of NH3 in H2 and air on the performance of PEMFC. Energies 2021;14:6556. doi:10.3390/en14206556

Shuai J, Zhao S, Liao Y, Wu F, Wang R, Wang L, et al. Rationally designing anti-poisoning polymer electrolyte by electronegativity modulation: towards efficient ammonia-cracked hydrogen fuel cells. Journal of Membrane Science 2024;697:122528. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2024.122528

Kim HY, Kim J, Lee E, Choi H, Chun H, Kundu J, et al. Electrocatalyst design strategies towards high performance anion-exchange membrane-based direct ammonia fuel cells. Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2025;13:6176–204. doi:10.1039/D4TA07723G

Ortíz-Herrera JC, Tellez-Cruz MM, Solorza-Feria O, Medina DI. Effect of different carbon supports on the activity of PtNi bimetallic catalysts toward the oxygen reduction. Catalysts 2022;12:477. doi:10.3390/catal12050477

Mensharapov RM, Spasov DD, Ivanova NA, Zasypkina AA, Smirnov SA, Grigoriev SA. Screening of carbon-Supported platinum electrocatalysts using Frumkin adsorption isotherms. Inorganics 2023;11:103. doi:10.3390/inorganics11030103

Pan Y, Chen Y, Li Y, Liu M, Yao L, Zhao H, et al. Entropy‐Increase Assisted Anti‐Sintering for Synthesis of High‐Loaded Pt Intermetallic Compounds as Electrocatalysts in PEMFCs. Adv Funct Materials 2025;35:2503628. doi:10.1002/adfm.202503628

Boshoman SB, Fatoba OS, Jen TC. Transition metal oxides as electrocatalytic material in fuel cells: a review. Engineered Science 2023;25:948. http://dx.doi.org/10.30919/es948

Hou Z, Cui C, Yang Y, Huang Z, Zhuang Y, Zeng Y, et al. Strong Metal‐Support Interactions in Heterogeneous Oxygen Electrocatalysis. Small 2024;20:2407167. doi:10.1002/smll.202407167

Bai F, Zhang Y, Hou D, Chen J, Meng F, Leung MK, et al. Mechanism and preparation research of binary heteroatom co-doped (X= N, S, P) platinum/carbon black electrocatalysts for an enhanced oxygen reduction reaction via a one-pot pyrolysis method. Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2024;12:384–95. doi:10.1039/D3TA04599D

Cho A, Park BJ, Han JW. Computational screening of single-metal-atom embedded graphene-based electrocatalysts stabilized by heteroatoms. Frontiers in Chemistry 2022;10:873609. doi:10.3389/fchem.2022.873609

Kim HS, Woo SM, Kang GM, You S, Lee S, Park S, et al. Phosphorus‐Doped Highly Crystalline Carbon for High Platinum Stability and Robust Support in Proton‐Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Small Methods 2026;10:2500481. doi:10.1002/smtd.202500481

Yang L, Jiang S, Zhao Y, Zhu L, Chen S, Wang X, et al. Boron‐Doped Carbon Nanotubes as Metal‐Free Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction. Angew Chem Int Ed 2011;50:7132–5. doi:10.1002/anie.201101287

Zhao G, Shi L, Xu J, Yan X, Zhao TS. Role of phosphorus in nitrogen, phosphorus dual-doped ordered mesoporous carbon electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2018;43:1470–8. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.11.165

Xie Y, Wang Z, Xu M, Xiong H, Chen Y, Wang X, et al. A sulfur‐modified pore‐blocking method to enhance the electrocatalytic stability of carbon‐supported platinum nanoparticles. ChemSusChem 2024;17:e202301819. doi:10.1002/cssc.202301819

Shaheen Shah S, Abu Nayem SM, Sultana N, Saleh Ahammad AJ, Abdul Aziz Md. Preparation of Sulfur‐doped Carbon for Supercapacitor Applications: A Review. ChemSusChem 2022;15:e202101282. doi:10.1002/cssc.202101282

Fonseca WS, Bouho FK, Ben Latifa S, Rafaïdeen T, Fernandes Messa Moreira T, Napporn TW, et al. Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Shells as a Protective Molecular Sieve for Poison-Tolerant PEMFC Anodes. ACS Electrochem 2026:acselectrochem.5c00513. doi:10.1021/acselectrochem.5c00513

Alekseenko A, Pavlets A, Moguchikh E, Tolstunov M, Gribov E, Belenov S, et al. Platinum-containing nanoparticles on N-doped carbon supports as an advanced electrocatalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction. Catalysts 2022;12:414. doi:10.3390/catal12040414

Yang L, Shui J, Du L, Shao Y, Liu J, Dai L, et al. Carbon‐Based Metal‐Free ORR Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells: Past, Present, and Future. Advanced Materials 2019;31:1804799. doi:10.1002/adma.201804799

Chen X, Niu K, Xue Z, Liu X, Liu B, Zhang B, et al. Ultrafine platinum nanoparticles supported on N, S-codoped porous carbon nanofibers as efficient multifunctional materials for noticeable oxygen reduction reaction and water splitting performance. Nanoscale Advances 2022;4:1639–48. doi:10.1039/D2NA00014H

Preuss K, Siwoniku AM, Bucur CI, Titirici M. The Influence of Heteroatom Dopants Nitrogen, Boron, Sulfur, and Phosphorus on Carbon Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction. ChemPlusChem 2019;84:457–64. doi:10.1002/cplu.201900083

Zhang J, Shen L, Jiang Y, Sun S. Random alloy and intermetallic nanocatalysts in fuel cell reactions. Nanoscale 2020;12:19557–81. doi:10.1039/D0NR05475E

Gao L, Li X, Yao Z, Bai H, Lu Y, Ma C, et al. Unconventional p–d Hybridization Interaction in PtGa Ultrathin Nanowires Boosts Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2019;141:18083–90. doi:10.1021/jacs.9b07238

Zeng Y, Liang J, Li C, Qiao Z, Li B, Hwang S, et al. Regulating Catalytic Properties and Thermal Stability of Pt and PtCo Intermetallic Fuel-Cell Catalysts via Strong Coupling Effects between Single-Metal Site-Rich Carbon and Pt. J Am Chem Soc 2023;145:17643–55. doi:10.1021/jacs.3c03345

Gao P, Pu M, Chen Q, Zhu H. Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals in cathode catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: from precise synthesis to oxygen reduction reaction strategy. Catalysts 2021;11:1050. doi:10.3390/catal11091050

Bu L, Liang J, Ning F, Huang J, Huang B, Sun M, et al. Low‐Coordination Trimetallic PtFeCo Nanosaws for Practical Fuel Cells. Advanced Materials 2023;35:2208672. doi:10.1002/adma.202208672

Guo F, Gong M, Liu L, Li B, Chen R, Gong M, et al. Harnessing Controlled Dealloying–Support Coupling for Ultrastable PtNi Catalysts in PEMFC Applications. Angew Chem Int Ed 2026;65:e4524344. doi:10.1002/anie.4524344

Wu B, Yang H, Li L, Tang X, Wu Y, Huang B, et al. Integrating PtCo Intermetallic with Highly Graphitized Carbon Toward Durable Oxygen Electroreduction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Advanced Materials 2025;37:2500096. doi:10.1002/adma.202500096

Yu B, Niu W, Cai C, Xu L, Wang F. Advances and Directions of Ordered Pt‐Based Transition Metal Alloys Supported on Carbon with Different Dimensions for Boosting ORR Catalytic Activity Toward PEMFCs. Adv Funct Materials 2026;36:e12569. doi:10.1002/adfm.202512569

Gao Y, He F, Zhang Y, Song S, Wu J, Liu Z, et al. Y‐Doped PtFeNi Medium‐Entropy Nano‐Alloy with Engineered (111) Facets for Enhanced Oxygen Reduction Reaction. Advanced Materials 2026;38:e22896. doi:10.1002/adma.202522896

Yang Y, Gao F, Zhang X, Qin S, Zheng L, Wang Y, et al. Suppressing Electron Back‐Donation for a Highly CO‐tolerant Fuel Cell Anode Catalyst via Cobalt Modulation. Angew Chem Int Ed 2022;61:e202208040. doi:10.1002/anie.202208040

Hu Y, Shen T, Zhao X, Zhang J, Lu Y, Shen J, et al. Combining structurally ordered intermetallics with N-doped carbon confinement for efficient and anti-poisoning electrocatalysis. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 2020;279:119370. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2020.119370

Li M, Zhao Z, Xia Z, Yang Y, Luo M, Huang Y, et al. Lavender-like Ga-doped Pt3Co nanowires for highly stable and active electrocatalysis. ACS Catalysis 2020;10:3018–26. doi:10.1021/acscatal.9b04419

Kim J-H, Kwon G, Lim H, Zhu C, You H, Kim Y-T. Effects of transition metal doping in Pt/M-TiO2 (M= V, Cr, and Nb) on oxygen reduction reaction activity. Journal of Power Sources 2016;320:188–95. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.04.019

Greiner MT, Chai L, Helander MG, Tang W, Lu Z. Transition Metal Oxide Work Functions: The Influence of Cation Oxidation State and Oxygen Vacancies. Adv Funct Materials 2012;22:4557–68. doi:10.1002/adfm.201200615

Ando F, Gunji T, Tanabe T, Fukano I, Abruña HD, Wu J, et al. Enhancement of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction Activity of Pt by Tuning Its d-Band Center via Transition Metal Oxide Support Interactions. ACS Catal 2021;11:9317–32. doi:10.1021/acscatal.1c01868

Tsai M-C, Nguyen T-T, Akalework NG, Pan C-J, Rick J, Liao Y-F, et al. Interplay between Molybdenum Dopant and Oxygen Vacancies in a TiO2 Support Enhances the Oxygen Reduction Reaction. ACS Catal 2016;6:6551–9. doi:10.1021/acscatal.6b00600

Wei X, Wang R-Z, Zhao W, Chen G, Chai M-R, Zhang L, et al. Recent research progress in PEM fuel cell electrocatalyst degradation and mitigation strategies. EnergyChem 2021;3:100061. doi:10.1016/j.enchem.2021.100061

Tsai D-C, Kuo B-H, Chen H-P, Chen E-C, Shieu F-S. Enhanced performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells by Pt/carbon/antimony-doped tin dioxide triple-junction catalyst. Scientific Reports 2023;13:23076. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-50080-w

Matsumura T, Fukunishi M, Matsumoto F. The Relationship between the Electronic State of Pt in Pt-Based Nanoparticle Catalysts and Their Electrochemical Catalytic Activity in the Oxidation of Small Organic Compounds. ACS Omega 2025;10:10060–70. doi:10.1021/acsomega.4c08380

Liu C, Wang W, Wu F, Zhang J, Chen C, Cheng P, et al. Research Progress on Preparation and Electrocatalytic Performance of Tin Dioxide Nanomaterials. The Chemical Record 2025;25:e202500007. doi:10.1002/tcr.202500007

Chen L, Zhang P, Jin Y-Q, Yang H, Sheng T, Yan Y, et al. Enhancing CO Tolerance in PEMFC Anodes via Thermal Oxidation Induced RuO2 Blocking Shell on a PtRu/C Catalyst. Nano Lett 2024;24:10642–9. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c02999

Chen J, Xiong S, Liu H, Shi J, Mi J, Liu H, et al. Reverse oxygen spillover triggered by CO adsorption on Sn-doped Pt/TiO2 for low-temperature CO oxidation. Nature Communications 2023;14:3477. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39226-6

Shen D, Sun F, Liang Z, Mei B, Xie Y, Wang Y, et al. Oxygen spillover on supported Pt-cluster for anti-CO-poisoning hydrogen oxidation. Nature Communications 2025;16:3883. doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58735-0

Lee E, Lee J, Hwang S, Kim DH. Role of CeO2 in promoting the spillover in CO oxidation reaction over platinum nanoparticle-supported CeO2 catalyst. Journal of Catalysis 2023;417:421–31. doi:10.1016/j.jcat.2022.12.030

Ding S, Zhang Y, Lou F, Li M, Huang Q, Yang K, et al. Oxygen-vacancy-type Mars–van Krevelen mechanism drives ultrafast dioxygen electroreduction to hydrogen peroxide. Materials Today Energy 2023;38:101430. doi:10.1016/j.mtener.2023.101430

Cha X, He J, Fu Y, Jiang B, Ali S, Chen S, et al. Carbonate-mediated Mars-van Krevelen mechanism on CuxO/CeO2 catalysts for boosting CO oxidation. Chemical Engineering Journal 2024;501:157643. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2024.157643

Kobayashi M, Naniwa S, Goto K, Matsuo H, Iguchi S, Tanaka T, et al. Promoting Effect of Pd Nanoparticles on SrTi0.8 Mn0.2 O3 in the Reverse Water‐Gas Shift Reaction via the Mars–Van Krevelen Mechanism. ChemCatChem 2024;16:e202400871. doi:10.1002/cctc.202400871

Huang H, Hayes ETC, Gianolio D, Cibin G, Hage FS, Ramasse QM, et al. Role of SnO2 in the Bifunctional Mechanism of CO Oxidation at Pt‐SnO2 Electrocatalysts. ChemElectroChem 2021;8:2572–82. doi:10.1002/celc.202100642

Spasov DD, Ivanova NA, Mensharapov RM, Sinyakov MV, Zasypkina AA, Kukueva EV, et al. Study of the Cathode Pt-Electrocatalysts Based on Reduced Graphene Oxide with Pt-SnO2 Hetero-Clusters. Inorganics 2023;11:325. doi:10.3390/inorganics11080325

Borbáth I, Salmanzade K, Pászti Z, Kuncser A, Radu D, Neaţu Ş, et al. Strategies to improve CO tolerance and corrosion resistance of Pt electrocatalysts for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: Sn-doping of the mixed oxide–carbon composite support. Catalysis Today 2024;438:114788. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2024.114788

Borbáth I, Zelenka K, Vass A, Pászti Z, Szijjártó GP, Sebestyén Z, et al. CO tolerant Pt electrocatalysts for PEM fuel cells with enhanced stability against electrocorrosion. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2021;46:13534–47. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.08.002

Eckardt M, Gebauer C, Jusys Z, Wassner M, Hüsing N, Behm RJ. Oxygen reduction reaction activity and long-term stability of platinum nanoparticles supported on titania and titania-carbon nanotube composites. Journal of Power Sources 2018;400:580–91. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.08.036

Stewart DW, Scott K, Wain AJ, Rosser TE, Brightman E, Macphee D, et al. The role of tungsten oxide in enhancing the carbon monoxide tolerance of platinum-based hydrogen oxidation catalysts. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2020;12:37079–91. doi:10.1021/acsami.0c07804

Bouho FK, Fonseca WS, Latifa SB, Rafaïdeen T, Pailloux F, Rousseau J, et al. Highly active Ptx (SnO2) 100-x/C catalysts towards the hydrogen oxidation reaction and tolerant to the presence of carbon monoxide. Materials & Design 2025:115194. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2025.115194

Lin R, Cao C, Zhang H, Huang H, Ma J. Electro-catalytic activity of enhanced CO tolerant cerium-promoted Pt/C catalyst for PEM fuel cell anode. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2012;37:4648–56. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.05.021

Yaldagard M, Shahbaz M, Kim HW, Kim SS. Ethanol Electro-Oxidation on Catalysts with S-ZrO2-Decorated Graphene as Support in Fuel Cell Applications. Nanomaterials 2022;12:3327. doi:10.3390/nano12193327

Chen Y, Meng L, Sun H, Lin H, Sun S. Emerging strategies for durable Pt catalysts in PEMFCs. Chemical Science 2026. doi:10.1039/D5SC08221H

Zhao X, Sasaki K. Advanced Pt-Based Core–Shell Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cell Cathodes. Acc Chem Res 2022;55:1226–36. doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00057

Zhang B, Shan J, Wang W, Tsiakaras P, Li Y. Oxygen Vacancy and Core–Shell Heterojunction Engineering of Anemone‐Like CoP@CoOOH Bifunctional Electrocatalyst for Efficient Overall Water Splitting. Small 2022;18:2106012. doi:10.1002/smll.202106012

Jin H, Xu Z, Hu Z-Y, Yin Z, Wang Z, Deng Z, et al. Mesoporous Pt@ Pt-skin Pt3Ni core-shell framework nanowire electrocatalyst for efficient oxygen reduction. Nature Communications 2023;14:1518. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37268-4

Wang C, An C, Qin C, Gomaa H, Deng Q, Wu S, et al. Noble metal-based catalysts with core-shell structure for oxygen reduction reaction: Progress and prospective. Nanomaterials 2022;12:2480. doi:10.3390/nano12142480

Garg A, Milina M, Ball M, Zanchet D, Hunt ST, Dumesic JA, et al. Transition‐Metal Nitride Core@Noble‐Metal Shell Nanoparticles as Highly CO Tolerant Catalysts. Angew Chem Int Ed 2017;56:8828–33. doi:10.1002/anie.201704632

Liu Z, Peng B, Tsai Y-HJ, Zhang A, Xu M, Zang W, et al. Pt catalyst protected by graphene nanopockets enables lifetimes of over 200,000 h for heavy-duty fuel cell applications. Nature Nanotechnology 2025;20:807–14. doi:10.1038/s41565-025-01895-3

Feng H, Luo Y, Yan B, Guo H, He L, Tian ZQ, et al. Highly stable cathodes for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Novel carbon supported Au@ PtNiAu concave octahedral core-shell nanocatalyst. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 2022;626:1040–50. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2022.06.115

An Z, Li H, Zhang X, Xia Z, Zhang H, Chu W, et al. Ultrastable and Phosphoric Acid-Resistant PtRhCu@Pt Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalyst for High-Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells. ACS Catal 2024;14:2572–81. doi:10.1021/acscatal.3c04488

Kang W, Shen T, Wang Y, Xu J, Ma C, Wang Y, et al. Site‐Blocking Strategy Boosts H2 S Tolerance in Platinum‐Based Hydrogen Oxidation Catalysts. Angew Chem Int Ed 2025;64:e202512225. doi:10.1002/anie.202512225

Wang T, Chen Z-X, Yu S, Sheng T, Ma H-B, Chen L-N, et al. Constructing canopy-shaped molecular architectures to create local Pt surface sites with high tolerance to H 2 S and CO for hydrogen electrooxidation. Energy & Environmental Science 2018;11:166–71. doi:10.1039/C7EE02641B

Wang T, Li L-Y, Chen L-N, Sheng T, Chen L, Wang Y-C, et al. High CO-Tolerant Ru-Based Catalysts by Constructing an Oxide Blocking Layer. J Am Chem Soc 2022;144:9292–301. doi:10.1021/jacs.2c00602

Niu B, Gao F, Fu T, Yan X, Liu Y, Guo Y, et al. A High-Capacity, CO-Tolerant Hydrogen Getter Enabled by a Ru-Based Oxide Barrier Layer. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 2026:140384. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2026.140384

Liu W, Yang F, Sun T, Huang C, Lai W, Du J, et al. Ultrathin PtNiW@WOx core-shell nanowires for enhanced CO-tolerant hydrogen oxidation: three-in-one catalyst design. Sci China Mater 2024;67:1866–75. doi:10.1007/s40843-023-2804-9

Zhang D, Liu W, Ye K, Li X. High CO and sulfur tolerant proton exchange membrane fuel cell anodes enabled by “work along both lines” mechanism of 2, 6-dihydroxymethyl pyridine molecule blocking layer. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 2024;653:413–22. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2023.09.076

Zhang M, Song Z, Wang Z, Wang A, Zhu G, Shao S. Platinum quantum dots enhance electrocatalytic activity of bamboo-like nitrogen doped carbon nanotubes embedding Co-MnO nanoparticles for methanol/ethanol oxidation. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 2021;590:164–74. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2021.01.045

Long D, Liu Y, Ping X, Chen F, Tao X, Xie Z, et al. Constructing CO-immune water dissociation sites around Pt to achieve stable operation in high CO concentration environment. Nature Communications 2024;15:8105. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-51562-9

Xiao F, Sun H, Geng S, Hu X, Jiang K, Zhang Q, et al. Rare earth-decorated platinum-nickel-cobalt knot-like nanowires achieve efficient bifunctional electrocatalysis for PEMFC. Nano Energy 2025:111379. doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111379

Kakinuma K, Suda K, Kobayashi R, Tano T, Arata C, Amemiya I, et al. Electronic States and Transport Phenomena of Pt Nanoparticle Catalysts Supported on Nb-Doped SnO2 for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2019;11:34957–63. doi:10.1021/acsami.9b11119

He C, Wang X, Sankarasubramanian S, Yadav A, Bhattacharyya K, Liang X, et al. Highly Durable and Active Pt/Sb-Doped SnO2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysts Produced by Atomic Layer Deposition. ACS Appl Energy Mater 2020;3:5774–83. doi:10.1021/acsaem.0c00717

Fukuda T, Iimura K, Yamamoto T, Tsuji R, Tanabe M, Nakashima S, et al. Ozone-assisted hydrothermal synthesis method of Sb-doped SnO2 conductive nanoparticles for carbon-free oxygen-reduction-reaction catalysts of proton-exchange-membrane hydrogen fuel cells. Crystals 2024;14:462. doi:10.3390/cryst14050462

Liu Y, Mustain WE. Stability limitations for Pt/Sn–In2O3 and Pt/In–SnO2 in acidic electrochemical systems. Electrochimica Acta 2014;115:116–25. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.10.155

He C, Sankarasubramanian S, Ells A, Parrondo J, Gumeci C, Kodali M, et al. Self-Anchored Platinum-Decorated Antimony-Doped-Tin Oxide as a Durable Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalyst. ACS Catal 2021;11:7006–17. doi:10.1021/acscatal.1c00963

Cognard G, Ozouf G, Beauger C, Dubau L, López-Haro M, Chatenet M, et al. Insights into the stability of Pt nanoparticles supported on antimony-doped tin oxide in different potential ranges. Electrochimica Acta 2017;245:993–1004. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2017.05.178

Ozouf G, Cognard G, Maillard F, Chatenet M, Guétaz L, Heitzmann M, et al. Sb-doped SnO2 aerogels based catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Pt deposition routes, electrocatalytic activity and durability. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 2018;165:F3036–44. doi:10.1149/2.0041806jes




DOI: https://doi.org/10.15826/chimtech.9942

Copyright (c) 2026 Darya Grineva, Ruslan Mensharapov, Matvey Sinyakov, Dmitry Spasov

Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Scopus logo WorldCat logo DOAJ logo CAS logo BASE logo eLibrary logo

Chimica Techno Acta, 2014–2025
eISSN 2411-1414
Copyright Notice